Pre-antibiotic age

During the pre-antibiotic era there was always an urgent and vital need for the development of new therapeutic agents. Experimental antimicrobial therapy was practiced for many centuries ¹. There has been use of molds, fermenting bread and several forms of yeasts for treating various abdominal and gynecological ailments. Mouldy bread was used to treat open wounds, as it was considered as a remedy due to the growth of antibiotic producing microbes on them ². Phenolic substances and mercury salts were also used for therapy inspite of their toxicity ³. In 1867, Joseph Lister, a surgeon, had proposed disinfecting both, the area around the wounds and surgical instruments, by using five percent solution of carbolic acid ⁴. Paul Ehrlichā€™s team discovered Salvarsan, in 1909, which was active against syphilis. Ehrlich had the idea of developing compounds which could specifically target the pathogenic microorganisms, and not the host cells. He used the term ā€œMagic Bulletsā€ for such compounds ⁵.  This no doubt gave the scientists the concept of targeted therapies. The principle of specific development of drugs and universal standardization of diagnostic and therapeutic approaches are based on the pioneering research of Paul Ehrlich and his colleagues ⁶.

Discovery of antibiotics

New era of antibiotic began with Sir Alexander Flemingā€™s observation in 1928 concerning the lysis of bacteriaon a Penicillium contaminated culture plate left on his workbench. Scientists Ernst Chain and Howard Florey, in 1940, were able to isolate Penicillin. This gave a boost for future research on drug discovery among researchers. And in 1945, Fleming, Florey and Chain shared the Nobel Prize for their important roles in the discovery, research and development of Penicillin.

Selman Waksman, beginning in 1940s, was one of the principal investigators who started classical screening programmes for detection of new antibiotics, leading to the discovery of streptomycin, which could be used for the treatment of tuberculosis. His research led to the Golden Age of Antibiotic discoveries. By the mid-1950s representatives of most families of antibiotics had been discovered, including aminoglycosides, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, macrolides, rifamycins and fusidic acid. Chemists and microbiologists have come up with a variety of synthetic antimicrobial drugs, including nitroimidazol, quinolones and most antituberculous drugs ³.

Current status

We should realize that antibiotics can be used to treat bacterial, fungal and parasitic infections, and not against viral illness eg: common cold, flu virus etc. Antibiotic discovery was indeed one of the greatest and most successful achievements in medical history, but there are certain limitations like toxicity and drug resistance. Current antimicrobial agents are not effective against total range of pathogens because they may cause serious side effects and are becoming less useful because of increased resistance to them by the microorganisms. The growing incidence of drug resistant infectious diseases suggests that a major investment is needed for development of new active molecules. Development of new drug molecules with better therapeutic efficiency is essential in the treatment of diverse diseases and disorders. Continuing advancements in science, and a better understanding of human diseases will enable the researchers to develop novel antimicrobial drugs with desired activities, thereby encouraging a second ā€œGolden Age of Antibioticsā€ in the near future ⁷.

The Figure 1 shows the timeline of the antibiotics reaching clinics/hospitals ², and Figure 2 displays the timeline showing antibiotic resistance ⁸.

(The article is contributed by Dr. Sunesh K. Augustine, Senior Lecturer, 51±¬ĮĻ School of Life Sciences)

References

1. John M.B., Payne E. and Berne V. Antimicrobial agents. In: The surgeons guide to antimicrobial chemotherapy. Academic Press, London, 2000, 25-66.
2. Hutchings M.I., Truman A.W. and Wilkinson B. Antibiotics: Past, present and future. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2019, 51, 72ā€“80
3. ., ., ., ., . and . Polyene antibiotics from Streptomyces mediocidicus. J Nat Prod., 2007, 70, 215-219
4. Pelczar, M. J., Chan, E. C. S., & Krieg, N. R. (1993). Microbiology : Concepts and applications. New York : McGraw-Hill.
5. Aminov R. I. A brief history of the antibiotic era : lessons learned and challenges for the future. Front Microbiol. 2010 ;1 :134

As there is an increase in use of technological resources in our daily lives, it has led to their implementation in our lectures ^[7]. It has been observed that the use of these tools improves the participation and motivation among students, thereby increasing the meaningful learning in students ^[8]. The desire to learn increases due to the use of technologies with which students are familiar with ^[9]. Online platforms like Socrative, Quizlet, Quizziz and Kahoot that apply game based learning have become more popular in the field of education, and these platforms are now widely used to promote student learning ^[10]. Kahoot platform is an excellent ICT (Information and communications technology) which can be used to conduct educational surveys, quizzes and discussions, generating response. Ā Research shows that the use of web-based Kahoot tool in the classroom has the benefit of improving the students learning process and their overall participation, along with bringing about a positive relationship among class members and development of social skills ^[11].

The purpose of assessment is to gather and record relevant information regarding the performance or progress of learners, which can be used as a guidance during the learning process ^[12]. We usually have the summative and formative types of assessment. Summative assessments are conducted after the syllabus in a particular term is completed, and it requires grading so that judgements can be made about the learning and understanding that has occurred during that semester. Whereas formative assessments are designed to improve the studentā€™s understanding of the subject matter ^[13]. Thus a formative assessment is a part of learning and is prepared to provide appropriate feedback for improvement in performance, and accelerate learning ^[12]. The type of assessment for which the Kahoot platform can be used is the formative assessment. Kahoot is now a popular real-time platform for game based learning that is widely used in schools and universities, with reports of more than 30 million users worldwide ^[14].

The rationale for using this assessment method is due to the benefits of game based learning ^[15]. Studies have shown that game based learning results in significantly improved student performance and focus compared to traditional methods ^[16]. This includes better learning efficiency ^[17], increase in student motivation and interest ^[18], good engagement ^[19], and providing an effective feedback ^[20].

As most teachers have been conducting quizzes and surveys in classroom using traditional methods, it can be challenging for a few of them to design the technology enabled formative assessments, as most of these ICT tools are recently developed, and they find it laborious to use all these various technology platforms. Even though integrating these tools may be challenging in the beginning, but if used in creative ways it could support curiosity, attention and understanding in learning, among students. Regular use of these tools will benefit both, the teacher and the learner, and in the long run it is very productive, satisfying and rewarding.

This article is contributed by Dr. Sunesh K. Augustine, Senior Lecturer, 51±¬ĮĻ School of Life Sciences.

References:

1. Snider, S., Hirschy, S. A self-reflection framework for technology use by classroom teachers of young learners. He Kupu. 2009, 2, 30-44

• Yelland, N. Technology as Play. Early Childhood Education Journal. 1999,26(4), 217-220.

• Lomangino, A. G., Nicholson, J., Sulzby, E. The influence of power relations and social goals on childrenā€™s collaborative interactions while composing on computer. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 1999, 14(2), 197-228.

The pandemic has been a difficult event for all of us but many of its outcomes are just what was required. It has kick-started and forcibly moved the world rapidly into the digital space ā€“ changes that otherwise would have taken years, have been accelerated in the space of months.

Education will assimilate many of the digital advantages that it has acquired during this time and, in future, there will be a wonderful blend of face-to-face education with digital education that will revolutionise studentsā€™ learning process.

As students, you will now encounter work interviews that are entirely digital and you will have to learn to present yourself and your work to your advantage through digital means. At 51±¬ĮĻ, we encourage you to acquaint yourself and master every digital tool that is at your disposal. You must learn to put them to their best possible use. These are going to be invaluable for you as you equip yourself for the post-pandemic world.Ā Ā 

The world of work is set to be transformed. Today, digital technologies have disrupted time and space considerations like never before. The concept of the physical office has fast eroded. Prepare to work from wherever you are ā€“ your office is where you are. Be prepared for disruption of your time schedules, as well. The digital world is a truly globalised world ā€“ so the 9 am to 5 pm work schedule will be replaced by timings that are common to all the time zones that your company occupies.

Will there be challenges ahead? Of course there will be. But the possibilities and opportunities ahead are endless ā€“ there are very exciting days ahead and 51±¬ĮĻ is here to gear you up for it!

Fast forward to today, Biotechnology has rapidly evolved into a broad discipline that harnesses the functions of microbes to produce useful biomolecules in medicine, as well as utilising molecular biology and genetic engineering to modify plants and animals to improve agricultural productions. Hence, biotechnology is broadly classified into biologics/therapeutics production and agricultural biotechnology, which is also abbreviated as agro-biotechnology.

The major biopharmaceutical companies with manufacturing facilities based in Singapore, such as GSK, Lonza, AMGEN and ABBVIE, all employ biotechnology graduates to staff their factories which function 24/7 in a continuous line production. These factories produce both biologics and chemically synthesised drugs. Biologics refer to large and complex biomolecules that are produced in cell cultures or bacterial systems, and these biomolecules have therapeutic effects against their respective target human diseases (Amgen, 2017; Roger, 2006; Gottlieb, 2008). These therapeutic biomolecules include hormones, monoclonal antibodies and even engineered T-cells, which are far more complex and 200-1000 times larger than the chemical synthesised drugs, which are termed small molecule drugs (Roger, 2006; Gottlieb, 2008).

Other than being involved in the monitoring of the biologics commercial production, the biotechnology staff can also be deployed in the research and development laboratories. In the research and development departments, the staff work on developing new biologics through genetic and molecular manipulation of microorganisms and cells as well as enhancing the medical therapeutic properties of existing therapeutics. Additionally, the quality assurance and quality control departments deploy biotechnology staff to screen batches of biologics produced, to ensure that the biologics conform to reference standards of purity, quality and efficacy.

For individuals who prefer to engage customers rather than doing factory-based work, the biopharmaceutical companies maintain a legion of biotechnology graduates as sales, marketing and liaison staff. These personnel are responsible for communicating product specifications and promoting products to customers, as well as maintaining collaborative links with research institutes and key opinion leaders.

In the field of agro-biotechnology, the focus is on the modification of agricultural produce and organisms to improve on produce quality and quantity. The largest agro-biotechnology firm Monsanto maintains a sales representative office in Singapore, to market their products which include seeds, agricultural biologicals and crop protection products (Monsanto, 2020).  The seeds had been genetically modified or selectively bred to produce crops that are ā€œmore tolerant to adverse weather conditions, strengthen plant resistance to insects, and enable more effective weed control and farming practices that are more sustainable and better for the environmentā€ (Monsanto, 2020).

Another example of an agro-biotechnology company is AquaBounty Technologies which is famous for breeding fast-growing salmon through biotechnological means. The growth hormone gene from the Chinook salmon was integrated into the Atlantic salmon, to create a transgenic Atlantic salmon which grows twice as fast and consumes 25% less feed than the wildtype (AquaBounty, 2020). The transgenic Atlantic salmon are bred and farmed on land, in facilities called recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) (AquaBounty, 2020). The RAS was developed to overcome the issues of farming in sea cages: ā€œviolent storms, predators, harmful algal blooms, jellyfish attacks, fish escapes, and the transmission of pathogens and parasites from wild fish populations residing near the cages.ā€ (AquaBounty, 2020).

The Marine Aquaculture Centre (MAC) and the Aquaculture Innovation Centre (AIC) are the two Singapore agencies, specialised in the R&D of innovative aquaculture practices and breeding of aquaculture crop species. Located on St. Johnā€™s Island, MAC is an institute within the Singapore Food Agency (Marine Aquaculture Centre, 2020), while the AIC is a centre of excellence located at Temasek Polytechnic, formed by a consortium comprising Temasek Polytechnic, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), James Cook University, Nanyang Polytechnic, Nanyang Technological University, National University of Singapore, Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Republic Polytechnic and the Singapore Food Agency (SFA) (Aquaculture Innovation Centre, 2020).

In Singapore, the major agro-biotechnology firms are farms which employ variations of hydroponics and RAS aquaculture to intensively cultivate vegetables and fish respectively, on limited land parcels which span one to two acres or less. Examples of such firms are Oh Farms (Oh Farms, 2020), Kok Fah (Kok Fah Farms, 2020) and Fin by BOAT (Fin by BOAT, 2020).

Currently, local farms can only supply 10% of Singaporeā€™s local demand, and with Singapore Food Agencyā€™s objective to achieve 30% self-sufficiency in meeting local agricultural produce by 2030 (Singapore Food Agency, 2020), the agro-biotechnology industry is primed to require more biotechnology graduates to drive high-tech farm productions.

Hence, in the agro-biotechnology industry, Biotechnology graduates can be deployed in the R&D of transgenic organisms and selective breeding to boost production levels as well as manning high-tech RAS and hydroponic farms to meet demands for local agricultural produce. These two functions are essential for maintaining Singaporeā€™s self-sufficiency in food production and food security.

In summary, Biotechnology graduates are required to drive Singaporeā€™s economy, by running factories producing medicine and biologics to breeding and farming commercial crops to sustain Singaporeā€™s growing demand for food. Hence, a Biotechnology degree is a valuable qualification, as it equips the graduate with the requisite skills for the biopharmaceutical and agro-biotechnology industries.

ā€œWe have closed all our shops in France and some other European countries based on the request of the respective governments.ā€ On 15 March, Hermes, one of the worldā€™s leading luxury brand, has shut down all of its French production sites, totalling to about 40 manufacturers and tannery factories.

Prior to that, Gucci, an iconic Italian luxury brand, had also closed its factories in Tuscany and Marche, and said the businessā€™ closure could be extended because several regions are in a lockdown and the COVID-19 pandemic continues to escalate.

Chanel, one of the bellwethers in the fashion industry, stated that it would temporarily close down all production sites in France, Switzerland and Italy for two weeks, on 18 March.

No one anticipated that the coronavirus outbreak would hit the heart of the fashion market in an instant. The luxury industry, which regards its production sites as the respective brandsā€™ quality benchmarks, was plunged into an unprecedented situation.

The butterfly effect of the COVID-19 pandemic has been felt around the world. Hand sanitisers, protective garments and respirators are luxury items now. The Centres for Disease Control officially recommended widespread use of masks to help slow the spread of the coronavirus. This has caught the attention of the fashion industry.

The Prevention Equipment by Luxury Brands

The COVID-19 crisis has caused fashion brands to refocus their businesses and identify a common goal: to address the urgent need for the production of prevention equipment for the coronavirus crisis ā€“ face masks, hand sanitisers and medical gowns.

Louis Vuitton and Prada are among the leading brands of fashion that produces surgical masks in response to the COVID-19 shortage.

In arranging to supply defensive equip to healthcare specialities, Louis Vuitton has repurposed a few Masionā€™s ateliers over France to produce surgical masks and gowns.

At the same time, Louis Vuitton will give hundreds of thousands of much required non-surgical masks for cutting edge healthcare workers.

In the meantime, Louis Vuitton is releasing a luxury face shield which was designed to be ā€œboth stylish and protectiveā€, the French fashion house said in a statement.

The shield of the protective mask is fixed to an elastic band, with gold rivets that sport the Louis Vuittonā€™s logo on the side. The shield transitions from clear to dark under sunlight, much like the progressive lenses of sunglasses and spectacles, thus protecting the wearerā€™s eyes. Simultaneously, it can be turned into a trendy hat when flipped.

Italy was one of the worse-hit countries of the COVID-19 pandemic. On 16 March, Prada gave six seriously care units to clinics in Milan and on 18 March reported that it had begun the production of 80,000 medical gowns and 110,000 masks after a call from Tuscany locale.

Factories that usually produce makeup and perfume for brands like Christian Dior will also start to produce hand sanitisers, and will do so for as long as necessary, according to BBC News.

Saint Laurent and Balenciaga are slated to manufacture their own face masks for France. Whereas Gucci will produce and give over 1,000,000 masks and 55,000 medical gowns to Italy.

The Prevention Equipment by Local Brands

World-renowned brands are not the only ones producing face masks, hand sanitisers and medical gowns. Local fashion designers, clothing brands and tailors are joining forces to sew reusable masks for Singaporeā€™s migrant community and healthcare frontline workers.

Fashion brand Klarraā€™s design team has donated a batch of reusable non-medical masks to Project Masks by the Peopleā€™s Association Womenā€™s Integrated Network Council. At the same time, bridal designer Fatimah Mohsin launched an independent project to produce washable masks for frontline workers in Singapore.

Local brand CYC, founded in 1935, is producing 300,000 reusable masks for migrant workers and also engaged the help of volunteers to distribute them. All of their masks come with a water-repellent anti-viral filter, and is washable up to 15 times.

Students in the time of COVID-19

The prevention of the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic is the responsibility of people all over the world. Agata Maureen, former student from 51±¬ĮĻ School of Fashion Design, decided to contribute to the curbing of the spread of the pandemic by launching IKIMOMO, a personal online brand that designs washable masks using breathable fabric. People can customise their reusable mask.

While the fashion industry has designed various prevention equipment to combat the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, it has also inspired us to be more enthusiastic and creative. The prevention of the further spread of the pandemic is the responsibility of the whole world. Letā€™s work together in curbing the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic and to help the frontline workers where we can!

References:

Hepatitis A, B, C, D and E are the presently known types. Of these, the Hepatitis caused by the Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) is also known as infectious hepatitis or epidemic jaundice. It is an infectious disease which spreads mainly through the faecal-oral route, therefore, when a healthy individual ingests water or food contaminated with the faeces of an infected person. In rare cases, it is spread through close contact between family members and blood transfusion. High prevalence of HAV can be seen in regions with poor sanitation, household crowding and inadequate supply of clean drinking water.

Globally, almost 1.5 million cases of hepatitis A are reported each year but this number only reveals a part of the picture. Since almost 50% of the affected children below six years of age are asymptomatic and the rest have mild symptoms, which are often not regarded as hepatitis, the actual number of cases could be ten times the numbers reported (Franco et al., 2012). The HAV[SS1]  is a non-enveloped virus which carries its genetic material as single stranded Ribonucleic acid (RNA[SS2] [73] [74] ). In 1991, it was classified as a member of the Hepatovirus genus of the Picornaviridae family. Studies on different HAV strains from around the world show that only a single serotype of the virus exists (Cuthbert, 2001). 

Once inside the human body, the HAV enters the liver cells and replicates. The replication leads to a disruption of normal liver functions, an immune response initiation and subsequent inflammation. The incubation period is 2-6 weeks long, during which, the shedding of infectious viral particles in the faeces increases. This shedding reaches its peak at the onset of symptoms and gradually declines then. The initial symptoms seen can include malaise, fatigue, fever, nausea and vomiting, which can later develop into jaundice, dark cola-coloured urine and clay-coloured stools (Lemon, 1997).

The acute liver infection may last from two to six months and rarely develops into chronic infection. The severity of disease and the chances of a fatal outcome increases with age. Increasing levels of ALT, AST [SS5] and bilirubin indicates the presence of hepatic injury and can be used for a preliminary diagnosis. ALT and AST are the enzymes which are released by liver cells in response to cellular damage.

In response to the HAV, virus-specific IgM[SS6]  antibodies are made and the detection of this acute-phase antibody response using ELISA[SS7]  is the central focus of diagnosis. There is no specific treatment available for Hepatitis A and recovery from symptoms is the main aim of therapy.

In cases such as epidemic jaundice, the importance of prevention increases. Since 1992, safe and effective Formalin-killed whole virus vaccines have been developed to help countries control community-wide outbreaks. As of 2019, 34 countries used or are planning to introduce the vaccine against Hepatitis A in their immunisation routine (Hepatitis A, 2020.).

Children in high risk regions and travellers going to such regions should be immunised. Other than immunisation, some simple measures can help to bring the spread of the virus under control. Improvement in living standards, proper disposal of sewage, better access to clean drinking water combined with greater personal hygiene can help immensely. 28 July is celebrated world-wide as the World Hepatitis Day with the aim to increase awareness among people and educate them to better prevent future outbreaks.

References:

Franco, E., Meleleo, C., Serino, L., Sorbara, D., & Zaratti, L. (2012). Hepatitis A: Epidemiology and prevention in developing countries. World Journal of Hepatology, 4(3), 68ā€“73.

Lemon, S. M. (1997). Type A viral hepatitis: epidemiology, diagnosis, and prevention. Clinical Chemistry, 43(8), 1494ā€“1499.

Hepatitis A. (2020). Retrieved August 19, 2020, from

Cuthbert, J. A. (2001). Hepatitis A: Old and New. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 14(1), 38ā€“58.

Pictures:

Hepatitis A distribution: Lemon, S. M., Ott, J. J., Damme, P. V., & Shouval, D. (2018). Type A viral hepatitis: A summary and update on the molecular virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis and prevention. Journal of Hepatology, 68(1), 167ā€“184.

This article is contributed by Nazuk Gupta from the School of Life Sciences pursuing a bachelors of Science in Biotechnology with honours awarded by Northumbria University.

One of the precautionary measures, is the wearing of surgical masks. Though it is a very basic and simple control measure, it has remained one of the effective ways of prevention from infection. Other control measures include, social distancing, maintaining personal hygiene, reducing human interactions, enforcing a quarantine protocol, educating the masses on the virus and temperature checking..

At present, there is an urgent need for a cure to this virus. Many medical scientists are sceptical about finding the cure in the fastest and soonest time possible because it may take a year or so, for any cure to be clinically tested and mass-produced.

For now, we hope, that with the best possible control measures we have in place, we can prevent the spread of the COVID-19 virus further.. With the ending of the period, and phase 2 of Singaporeā€™s reopening, we need to remain cautious and abide by the control measures in place. Stay safe and stay healthy.

ā€¢          If R₀ is less than 1, each existing infection causes less than one new infection. In this case, the disease will decline and eventually die out.

ā€¢          If R₀ equals 1, each existing infection causes one new infection. The disease will stay alive and stable, but there will not be an outbreak or an epidemic.

ā€¢          If R₀ is more than 1, each existing infection causes more than one new infection. The disease will spread between people, and there may be an outbreak or epidemic.

Table 1. R₀ values and their implications.

The initial cluster of patients, identified in December 2019, upon admission to the hospitals were initially diagnosed with pneumonia of unknown aetiology. Based on epidemiological evidence this cluster was linked to the Hua Nan seafood and live animal market in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China (Watts et.al, 2020).

The patientsā€™ preliminary symptoms included fever, cough, tiredness and dyspnoea (shortness of breath). The antecedent clinical manifestations of COVID-19 can be classified into two categories; namely systemic and respiratory disorders. The systemic disorders are sputum production, haemoptysis which involves instances of coughing up blood or blood-stained mucous, acute cardiac injury, hypoxemia (low oxygen levels in the blood mainly in the arteries), lymphopenia (reduced lymphocyte count) and diarrhoea. The respiratory disorders include sneezing, sore throat, rhinorrhea, pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome. (Huang, et. al, 2020).

The pathogenā€™s high infectivity made it imperative for early testing and diagnosis to be conducted. The preliminary testing methods used for diagnosis are body temperature scans, chest CT scans, X-rays and blood work. Confirmatory tests involve specimen collection; nasopharyngeal (NP) swab are preferred although an oropharyngeal swab is also acceptable. These specimens are then tested using serological methods, viral sequencing and most importantly nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT) for COVID-19.

How exactly does the SARS-CoV2 manage to cause such life-threatening conditions? The virus makes its way into your body via the droplets of an infected person. These droplets are released by coughing, sneezing and even when breathing. The virus could travel from the infected person through the air or land on surfaces and enter a healthy person via the mouth, nose or the eyes through touch. This provides the virus with a pathway via the mucous membrane. Upon entry, the virus will bind to the ACE2 receptors present on the lungsā€™ epithelial cells, thus hijacking the healthy cells and eventually destroying them. (Hussin et. al, 2020)

Patients who test positive for COVID-19, exhibit abnormal respiratory symptoms along with elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines (chemical messenger for immune cells). Some other laboratory findings include increased red blood cell sedimentation rate, leukopenia (decrease of white blood cells) of which 70% are neutrophils. (Huang et. al, 2020). Neutrophils are significant as they are the front liners in our immune systems response.  Additionally, there are high levels of blood C-reactive protein which is an indicator that the immune system is active and responding to inflammation. The cells in the immune system will also secrete cytokines who act as chemical messengers e.g.  TNFĪ±. When the patientsā€™ chest CT scans are taken, they reveal pneumonia, RNAaemia (detection of cytomegalovirus RNA i.e genetic material  in the serum) coupled with ground-glass opacities (hazy opacities in CT scans that indicate filled air spaces in the lungs due to exudate accumulation). 

At present, there are no vaccines or antiviral therapies available for COVID-19. The current treatment programme includes the use of broad-spectrum antiviral medications such as oseltamivir, lopinavir and ritonavir. The National Institute of Health is currently conducting trials to test hydroxychloroquine as a potential treatment option for COVID-19. (National Institute of Health, 2020) Current research is now focused on understanding the biology of the virus, potential treatment option and most importantly the psychological effects that a pandemic like situation has on the society along with the socio-economic changes.

During such a pandemic, our best defence is to maintain good personal hygiene, practise social distancing and strictly follow the guidelines provided by government healthcare officials.

References

• Bogoch, A. Watts, A. Thomas-Bachli, C. Huber, M.U.G. Kraemer, K. Khan

Pneumonia of unknown etiology in Wuhan, China: potential for international spread via commercial air travel. J. Trav. Med. (2020).

• C. Huang, Y. Wang, X. Li, L. Ren, J. Zhao, Y. Hu, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China Lancet, 395 (10223) (2020).
• Hussin A.Rothana. Siddappa N.Byrareddy, The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. Elsevier, Journal of Autoimmunity Feb 26 2020.
•  Prof Chaolin Huang, MD, Yeming Wang, MD, Prof Xingwang Li, MD, Prof Lili Ren, PhD, Prof Jianping Zhao, MD, Yi Hu, MD,  Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. The Lancet, Volume 395, Issue 10223, 497 – 506.
• Laboratory testing for Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus, interim guidance (revised), January 2019, WHO/MERS/LAB/15.1/Rev1/2019, World Health Organization, 2018.
• Zhang S, Diao M, Yu W, Pei L, Lin Z, Chen D. Estimation of the reproductive number of novel coronavirus (COVID-19) and the probable outbreak size on the Diamond Princess cruise ship: A data-driven analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 2020; 93: 201ā€“204.

This article is contributed by Norishka Cassy Noel Dā€™lima from 51±¬ĮĻ School of Life Sciences.

Animals are good models for disease studies and development in biological and medicinal research, as they share similar DNA, physiological and behavioural characteristics as humans. Initially, murine (rodent) models were used as they are easy to house, breed and handle. However, in order to study cardiovascular diseases that plague humans, a larger species has to be used. Dogs were the first of the larger animals representing a model for cardiovascular diseases; however, in recent years, the pig model is more favoured.

Pigs and humans share a vast range of similarities, which make pigs a well suited model to study cardiovascular diseases. Firstly, pigs have an average heart rate of 90-107 beats per minute (bpm), mimicking a humanā€™s average heart rate of 70-100 bpm. The general cardiovascular systems, blood parameters, vessel size, coronary vasculature, body size, metabolic rates, lipid profiles and even diet are similar to humans. Comparing with humans, 60% of the circulating cholesterol in porcine is presented as low density lipoproteins and 38% as high density lipoproteins, almost identical to humans at 63% and 28% respectively.

In both human and pigs, the heart consists of tri-layered aortic valve leaflets and the majority of the heart is supplied by the left coronary artery. Pigs and humans share a right dominance of the heart, in which the artery of the right posterior intraventricular sulcus originates from the right coronary artery. This is different from the left dominance seen in ruminants and canines, in which the artery of the right posterior intraventricular sulcus originates from the circumflex.

Despite many similarities, pigs and humans do exhibit certain differences, which may be the limiting factors in research. The number of orifices in the left atrium varies among mammals. The pig receives oxygenated blood from two pulmonary veins in the left atrium; the human receives oxygenated blood from four to five pulmonary veins in the left atrium. The thorax of pigs is laterally compressed, unlike the thorax of humans which are dorso-ventrally compressed. In addition, a pigā€™s heart has a narrow tubular-shaped right auricle, while a human has a triangular shaped auricle.

The pig was domesticated in 9000-7000 BCE, and had been used in research for a long time. Some major breakthroughs which involved the pig, included isolation of embryonic stem cells, zinc finger nucleases (ZFN) identification and transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN) genome. And the new technology of genome editing; Clustered, Regularly Interspaced, Short palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) together with CRISPR associated (Cas) nucleases (CRISPR/Cas).

Pigs are the animal of choice for modelling human diseases, and advanced genetic techniques are being developed to simplify the production of genetically engineered pigs, designed to replicate human diseases. The species of pigs are selected based on the ratio of heart weight to body weight, often in 20-30kg pigs, in which the ratio is identical to adult humans at 5g per 1 kg.

The species most commonly used as models for cardiovascular diseases include the large Landrace pig, the Gƶttingen miniature pig and the Yucatan miniature pig. Ā The Yucatan tends to develop dysrhythmias and have higher absolute hemodynamic values, and is the most preferred breed to study cardiovascular diseases.

This article is written by Tan Xue Ting, student ofĀ 51±¬ĮĻ School of Life SciencesĢżā€“Ā Bachelors of Science (Hons) in Biomedical Science,ĢżNorthumbria University.Ā 

References:
Abramovitz, M. (2018).Ā Thinking critically. ReferencePoint Press Inc.
BarrĆ©-Sinoussi, F. and Montagutelli, X., 2015. Animal models are essential to biological research: issues and perspectives.Ā Future science OA,Ģż1(4).
Clarke, J., Shelton, J.R., Venning, G.R., Hamer, J. and Taylor, S., 1976. The rhythm of the normal human heart.Ā The Lancet,Ģż308(7984), pp.508-512.
Ericsson, A.C., Crim, M.J. and Franklin, C.L., 2013. A brief history of animal modeling.Ā Missouri medicine,Ģż110(3), p.201.
Gutierrez, K., Dicks, N., Glanzner, W.G., Agellon, L.B. and Bordignon, V., 2015. Efficacy of the porcine species in biomedical research.Ā Frontiers in genetics,Ģż6, p.293.
Hannon, J.P., Bossone, C.A. and Wade, C.E., 1989.Ā Normal physiological values for conscious pigs used in biomedical research(No. LAIR-379). LETTERMAN ARMY INST OF RESEARCH PRESIDIO OF SAN FRANCISCO CA.
Holder, T. (2008).Ā The Animal Model. [online] Speaking of Research. Available at: https://speakingofresearch.com/facts/the-animal-model/ [Accessed 23 Dec. 2019].
Lelovas, P.P., Kostomitsopoulos, N.G. and Xanthos, T.T., 2014. A comparative anatomic and physiologic overview of the porcine heart.Ā Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science,Ģż53(5), pp.432-438.
Perleberg, C., Kind, A. and Schnieke, A., 2018. Genetically engineered pigs as models for human disease.Ā Disease models & mechanisms,Ģż11(1), p.dmm030783.
Prather, R.S., Lorson, M., Ross, J.W., Whyte, J.J. and Walters, E., 2013. Genetically engineered pig models for human diseases.Ā  Rev. Anim. Biosci.,Ģż1(1), pp.203-219.
Rogers, C.S., 2016. Engineering large animal species to model human diseases.Ā Current protocols in human genetics,Ģż90(1), pp.15-9.
Smith, A.C., Ehler, W.J. and Swindle, M.M., 1997. Anesthesia and analgesia in swine. InĀ Anesthesia and analgesia in laboratory animals(pp. 313-336). Academic Press.
Suzuki, Y., Yeung, A.C. and Ikeno, F., 2010. The representative porcine model for human cardiovascular disease.Ā BioMed Research International,Ģż2011.
Tsang, H.G., Rashdan, N.A., Whitelaw, C.B.A., Corcoran, B.M., Summers, K.M. and MacRae, V.E., 2016. Large animal models of cardiovascular disease.Ā Cell biochemistry and function,Ģż34(3), pp.113-132.
Whyte, J.J., Samuel, M., Mahan, E., Padilla, J., Simmons, G.H., Arce-Esquivel, A.A., Bender, S.B., Whitworth, K.M., Hao, Y.H., Murphy, C.N. and Walters, E.M., 2011. Vascular endothelium-specific overexpression of human catalase in cloned pigs.Ā Transgenic research,Ģż20(5), pp.989-1001.
Zimmermann, W.H., 2014. Clinical considerations for cardiac tissue engineering. InĀ Cardiac Regeneration and Repair(pp. 299-312). Woodhead Publishing.

To understand more of dinosaur behaviour, the behaviour of modern creatures closely related to the dinosaurs could provide some clues. Contrary to popular belief, the dinosaurs are more closely related to the modern day birds than to living reptiles such as the alligator or the crocodile. A tiny shred of protein from a 68 million-year-old T-rex leg was compared to the 21 modern species which still produce the same protein. And the researches had confirmed that the giant predator was closely related to chickens and ostriches than crocodilians. While anatomical studies had produced convincing evidence of the link between birds and dinosaurs, this is the first time that studies had traced a relationship via molecular analysis of animal protein. And this discovery provided the first molecular evidence for the evolutionary relationships from a non-avian dinosaur to modern birds. The research also provides evidence that birds descended directly from a group of dinosaurs that grew feathers.

Having established that modern day birds are descendants of the extinct dinosaurs, we can surmise how dinosaurs would have raised their young. The young of most egg-laying reptiles hatch after their parents have abandoned the eggs, while a few lizards and snakes guard theirs and pythons tend to incubate their eggs for a short while. Only crocodiles and their relatives had been observed tending to both eggs and hatchlings. On the contrary, nearly all birds, aside from brood parasites, provide extended care for their offspring. It can then be postulated that dinosaurs may share similar instincts to care for their young.

Studies had shown that certain dinosaurs such as the troodontid and the oviraptorid display similar reproductive attributes with birds such as multilayered eggshells, asymmetric eggs and monoautochronic ovulation. Adult Troodon formosus, Oviraptor philoceratops, and Citipati osmolskae had been discovered fossilised with bird-like brooding postures atop egg clutches.

Oviraptor, whose name translates from Latin into ā€˜egg thievesā€™, was aptly named after being discovered with eggs that were assumed to be from the small ceratopsian dinosaur, Protoceratops. It was assumed that Oviraptor stole and ate other dinosaursā€™ eggs. However, studies had shown that those eggs actually belonged to Oviraptor, with evidence that the species, in reality risked their lives for their young! For the dinosaur to be caught in the act suggests strong parental instincts to protect their young.

Just as the modern day herbivores, whose young have the ability to walk and run, hours and even minutes after birth, the young of prehistoric herbivores such as sauropods and titanosaurs were also believed to bear young equipped with developed mobility. Modern birds care for their newborns in specially prepared nests, suggesting that some feathered dinosaurs might had done the same, probably in specific birthing grounds. Numerous fossils of Maiasaura, an herbivore, were found to consist of eggs, hatchlings, juveniles and adults in the same site. Further analysis of the fossils demonstrated that Maiasaura possessed immature leg muscles, and might be incapable of walking when born. Research showed that Maiasaura teeth had evidence of wear and tear, and could imply that the adults brought food to the nest to care for their young until they were old enough to fend for themselves. Similar behaviour had been recorded in other herbivorous dinosaur groups such as the ceratopsians, hadrosaurs and ornithischians.

Analysis of Troodon fossilised clutches hinted that males incubated the eggs instead of females, similar to the modern day cassowaries. Evidence of male brooding was also found in the distantly related Troodon cousins, Oviraptor and Citipati.

With over 700 species of dinosaurs identified so far within the Mesozoic Era, which comprises the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, there is plenty of evidence to show that dinosaurs did care for their young. However, we have yet to fully comprehend the whole range of dinosaur behaviour, and our current understanding of dinosaur social interactions remain ambiguous.

This article is written by Tan Xue Ting, student of 51±¬ĮĻ School of Life Sciences – Bachelors of Science (Hons) in Biomedical Science, Northumbria University.Ā 

References:
Connor, S. (2008). Tyrannosaurus Rex ‘was more like a chicken than a crocodile’. INDEPENDENT. [online] Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/tyrannosaurus-rex-was-more-like-a-chicken-than-a-crocodile-815417.html [Accessed 15 Apr. 2019].

Deretsky, Z. (2007).Ā Study Documents Bird-like Breathing Systems in Long-extinct Dinosaurs- All Images | NSF – National Science Foundation. [online] Nsf.gov. Available at: https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_images.jsp?cntn_id=104299&org=NSF [Accessed 29 Jul. 2019].

Dinosaur Fossils Frozen. (n.d.).Ā 0425 – Dinosaur Fossils Frozen. [online] Available at: http://www.0425.info/dinosaur-fossils-frozen-f2d85e7430ad5c74031801.html [Accessed 29 Jul. 2019].

Dvorsky, G. (2013). [online] Io9.gizmodo.com. Available at: https://io9.gizmodo.com/finally-actual-physical-evidence-that-t-rex-was-a-pred-800092954 [Accessed 29 Jul. 2019].

Fossilhunters (2013).Ā Info – Defining Dinosaurs – Fossil Hunters. [online] Available at: https://www.fossilhunters.xyz/defining-dinosaurs/info-sqd.html [Accessed 29 Jul. 2019].

Osterloff, E. (2018). Were dinosaurs good parents?. [online] Nhm.ac.uk. Available at: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/were-dinosaurs-good-parents.html [Accessed 15 Apr. 2019].

Strauss, B. (2018). How Did Dinosaurs Raise Their Families?. ThoughtCo.. [online] Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/were-dinosaurs-good-parents-1091906 [Accessed 15 Apr. 2019].

Varricchio, D.J., Moore, J.R., Erickson, G.M., Norell, M.A., Jackson, F.D. and Borkowski, J.J., 2008. Avian paternal care had dinosaur origin. science, 322(5909), pp.1826-1828.