Life sciences involve the study of living organisms, including their functions, structures, behavioural patterns, and interactions. Among its sub-disciplines are biology, biochemistry, biotechnology, genetics, ecology, and physiology.

The study of life sciences; enables students to gain a deep-in understanding of how life works and to investigate a wide range of natural phenomena, from microscopic organisms to complex ecosystems. Being one of the most innovative sectors of the new economy, it offers exciting opportunities, especially for the Gen Z and beyond.

In addition, Singapore serves as a ; a large pool of skilled talent for knowledge exchange, competitive manufacturing capabilities and a thriving R&D ecosystem with strong links to global pharmaceutical and biotechnology firms carrying ground-breaking portfolios and offering great career opportunities. For one, GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), a leading pharmaceutical firm which has an industrial set-up in Singapore designed to serve patients from around the globe, and connect it with the growing Asian market.

Let鈥檚 take a closer look at life sciences R&D, and key contributions one could be making to the sector in a bid to resolve seemingly insurmountable challenges.

Research and Development in Life Sciences

Research and development (R&D) spearheads our understanding of living organisms, ways to enhance human health, and address global challenges. It comprises a wide range of activities aimed at discovering new knowledge, developing innovative technologies, and creating practical applications to benefit our society.

In life sciences R&D, researchers and scientists engage in systematic investigations to explore biological systems, study cellular processes, and unravel the complexities of living organisms. They conduct experiments, analyse data, and collaborate with multidisciplinary teams to generate new insights and expand the frontiers of scientific knowledge.

World-leading biomedical sciences companies like GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis, BioNTech, Johnson & Johnson and Roche have a range of commercial activities, including R&D, Supply Chain Management, Regulatory Affairs and Medical Affairs based in Singapore.

A key area for R&D in the life science industry is biotechnology. Take the example of vaccines. Many biotech firms are manufacturing Covid-19 mRNA vaccines and boosters to prevent the populace from getting infected, and there are plans to develop and manufacture new therapeutics and cancer vaccines for clinical trials and commercial scale-up capability.

Top 4 Essential Skills in Life Sciences

Jobs in the life sciences sector are in high demand. So, how can one prepare himself to be fit for the trade? What are the competitive and relevant baseline skillsets required to be developed?

Problem-solving

To succeed in the life sciences industry, he/she should be able to analyse complex biology challenges and implement effective solutions. A key strength is to possess a unique blend of analytical and creative thinking, which would be helpful when it comes to making informed decisions, selecting key variables and articulating the critical steps derived from varied perspectives and solutions.

Data analyses

Thanks to digital transformation, major advancements in the life sciences sector have been made. Scientists and other professionals will need to bridge analytics, design, engineering and data science to effectively present data findings or reports to their team.

Communication

Refined interpersonal and communication skills carry essential returns as they help establish trust and mutual understanding, facilitating any form of information sharing and learning exchanges, within and between institutions. Clear descriptions in written reports and effective verbal presentation of key findings would streamline expectations and optimize performance.

Adaptability

Life sciences is an ever-evolving sector with an increasingly complex regulatory landscape, with digital innovation paving the way for significant change in the industry. Therefore, working professionals need to be agile, have the ability to adapt to new technology and devise different ways to solve problems. They have to be prepared for dynamic change, be willing to learn new skills, and keep pace with the changes.

Getting Ready for a Career in Life Sciences

Getting ready for a career in life sciences can be exciting. There are diverse sub-disciplines such as biotechnology, biomedical, pharmaceuticals, R&D and more. Here are a few tips to kickstart a career in the Life Sciences industry.

Pick your interest

An ideal starting point is to research and discern the differences between Pharmaceutical, Biotechnology, Medical Devices, Clinical Research Organisation (CRO) and Contract Developing Manufacturing Organisation (CDMO). Detailed understanding of the market will make for an easier and quicker search. Once the desired space has been chosen, it is time to look into your dream job.

Network with relevant industry

Networking is more than having thousands of initiated connections which you do not interact or keep up with. Engage with professionals from various industries, and you can get a better apprehension on the such as alternative food proteins, which will place Singapore as a global hub for the agri-food sector, boosting the food and beverage industry.

Experience, knowledge and expertise

Gain some especially during your internship. Maintain a cordial relationship with your employer, earn a strong testimonial and the chance to work in the same firm upon graduation. Some MNCs offer study-work bonds; you may also consider this option to advance your career in the life sciences industry.

The skills required to succeed within Life Sciences differ depending on the field you wish to join, but some qualifications can be transferable. Scientific Degrees such as Biotechnology, Biochemistry, Pharmaceuticals and even Engineering are a plus for most companies and can open a door or two.  Choose the path that best suits your interests.

Plan Your Next Chapter with 51爆料

In collaboration with Northumbria University and Teesside University in the UK, 51爆料 School of Life Sciences (SLS) in Singapore offers the latest programmes that give graduates the knowledge and abilities they need to keep up with real-time development in Life Sciences.

SLS offers modern lab facilities that are essential for the carving of practical skills through business research projects and research development. Visit the 51爆料 website to learn more about our life science programmes.

For enquiries related to life sciences academic programmes and admissions in Singapore, please contact us for relevant information and guidance.

Meet Norishka Cassy Dlima  

She graduated with a Bachelor of Science (Hons) Biomedical Science in 2021 and is currently pursuing her Master鈥檚 in the UK.听聽

What was your thought process before deciding to study at 51爆料? 

I was looking to re-start my career in Biomedical Sciences that is when I saw an advertisement for 51爆料. It was a no brainer for an Honours Degree in Singapore, it felt like a good opportunity for me.听聽

What do you miss most about your time at 51爆料? 

It has been exactly a year since I graduated, I miss going to 7-Eleven with friends having coffee and talking to my lecturers. Most importantly, I miss the Lab where I spent half a year doing my final year project. Those were some of the best memories. So many hilarious stories that I cannot really think of one in particular. But I do remember doing a 鈥榃hat鈥檚 in my bag?鈥� video for 51爆料 that to me was funny. Looking back, I realised I did a lot outside of my course curriculum. I became Vice-president of the BIOGNOSY club, wrote articles for Horizon (the official 51爆料鈥� magazine series) and the 51爆料 Blog. They all contributed to my overall positive experience at MDIS. 

What intrigued you the most about Biomedical Science? 

Well, the whole understanding of what each sub-cellular part of the body does and how that comes together is marvellous. That鈥檚 what got me interested in the first place.  

Where do you see the Biomedical Industry in 5 years? 

I feel the biomedical industry is just booming right now. Like COVID-19 was an eye opener – It made us realise the importance and need for scientific research and it also opened so many more career pathways for budding scientists like myself.   

What are your current plans for the futute? 

Currently, I am pursuing my Master鈥檚 in Biomedical Sciences (Medical Microbiology) from Kingston University in London.  

How has the programme at 51爆料 prepared you for your Master鈥檚? 

I think the education that I got at 51爆料 has actually prepared me well enough for my master鈥檚 course. The course is well designed and well structured. It鈥檚 like a journey from basics to advanced concepts throughout the three years. I think the final year subjects were best.听聽聽

In 3 words, how would your friends describe you? 

Crazy, extroverted and funny. 

If you had a choice of one superpower, what would it be? 

Teleportation so I can move freely between Sg and London. 

Who was your most interesting lecturer at 51爆料? 

Dr Pallavi, Dr Sheema, Dr Gunjan, Dr Sunesh, Dr Shalini and Dr Ray  

What is your spirit animal? 

Sloth 

If you were to achieve a Guinness World Record, what would it be? 

Highest number of satay sticks eaten in 20 minutes.  

What is your go-to comfort food? 

Chicken Biryani (Mum鈥檚 homemade)  

Where is your favourite place to visit? (anywhere in the world) 

Mykonos Greece. 

Fig 1. Diagram of actinomycetes morphology showing the filamentous nature of the bacteria.听Adapted from听(Li, Chen, Jiang and Jiang, 2016).听

Although some species of this bacteria can be harmful, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, they have proven to be serve more as an ally. From medicine to fungicides, actinomycetes have found their way into many industries, thanks to their ability to produce a massive range of chemical substances⁴. Actinomycetes are categorized in a phylum belonging to the order Actinobacteria. Among these include the genus of Micromonospora and Streptomyces.  

Fig 2.听Scanning electron micrograph of聽Micromonospora聽echinospora.听Adapted from听(Li, Chen, Jiang and Jiang, 2016).听

Streptomyces are聽key聽players聽in medicine production, making up to 55% of antibiotics and 51% of non-antibiotics.听Streptomyces credit their role in medicine to the production of聽primary and聽secondary metabolites that act as an antimicrobial substance that have different modes of action towards different targets².听

Fig 3. Amount of actinomycetes screened from different habitats.听Adapted from听(Hamedi,听Poorinmohammad聽and Wink, 2017).听

In聽the聽metabolites of听厂迟谤别辫迟辞尘测肠别蝉听濒耻苍补濒颈苍丑补谤别蝉颈颈听(S.听lunalinharesii), it has聽chitinase聽properties that make them effective as a fungicide against phytopathogenic fungi⁸.听Furthermore, they have low toxicity and are environmentally friendly¹. In聽peptidic聽antibiotics, its mechanism was observed to alter the cell membranes of聽pathogens, resulting in the loss of the peptidoglycan cell walls⁹.听Streptomyces are so effective against bacteria that they are even used in the oil industry.听Sulfate-reducing bacteria are a major problem in the petroleum industry as they form biofilms and cause corrosion in pipes and containment units.听S.听lunalinharesii聽metabolites are聽optimal for the job聽as they can resist both the high temperature and the harsh chemicals present in oil storage⁷.听聽

Another Streptomyces-based product is rapamycin, derived from Streptomyces rapamycinicus. It is an immunosuppressant that works by blocking cytokine-induced signalling pathways. This results in the inactivation of a p34cde2 kinase, which in turn prevents the activation of T-cells. Rapamycin, with the help of corticosteroids, can therefor suppress the rejection of organs from transplantations⁴.   

Other than working well against bacteria and fungi, the use of actinomycetes even extents into chemotherapeutics. Calicheamicin is an anti-cancer agent that comes from echinospora鈥痵sp. calichensisa. The compound is obtained through the fermentation broth of the bacterium. Calicheamicin controls cancer cells through controlled apoptosis by DNA damage. It causes double strand cleavage by removing hydrogen atoms from the DNA. Calicheamicin is conjugated to antibodies for the administration to the tumour cells⁵.  

Actinomycetes have a part to play in many more sectors of biotechnology, and many more species are discovered even today. Unique habitats such as marine environments are being searched for different Actinomycetes species to be screened for metabolites beneficial to the advancement of biotechnology.  

References 

1. Flores-Gallegos, A. and Nava-Reyna, E., 2019. Plant Growth-Promoting Microbial Enzymes.鈥�Enzymes in Food Biotechnology, pp.521-534. 

2. Augustine S. K., Kapadnis B.P. A non-polyene antifungal antibiotic from Streptomyces albidoflavus PU 23. J Biosci. 2005 Mar; 30(2):201-11. doi: 10.1007/BF02703700. PMID: 15886456. 

3. Hamedi, J., Poorinmohammad, N. and Wink, J., 2017. The Role of Actinobacteria in Biotechnology.鈥�Biology and Biotechnology of Actinobacteria, pp.269-328. 

4. Huryn, D. and Wipf, P., 2008. Natural product chemistry and anticancer drug discovery.鈥�Cancer Drug Design and Discovery, pp.107-130. 

5. K盲mpfer, P., Glaeser, S., Parkes, L., van Keulen, G. and Dyson, P., 2014. The Family Streptomycetaceae.鈥�The Prokaryotes, pp.889-1010. 

6. Li, Q., Chen, X., Jiang, Y. and Jiang, C., 2016. Morphological Identification of Actinobacteria.鈥�Actinobacteria – Basics and Biotechnological Applications. 

7. Nawani, N., Aigle, B., Mandal, A., Bodas, M., Ghorbel, S. and Prakash, D., 2013. Actinomycetes: Role in Biotechnology and Medicine.鈥�BioMed Research International, 2013, pp.1-1. 

8. Ortenberg, E. and Telsch, B., 2003. Taste and odour problems in potable water.鈥�Handbook of Water and Wastewater Microbiology, pp.777-793. 

9. Pacheco da Rosa, J., Korenblum, E., Franco-Cirigliano, M., Abreu, F., Lins, U., Soares, R., Macrae, A., Seldin, L. and Coelho, R., 2013. Streptomyces lunalinharesiiStrain 235 Shows the Potential to Inhibit Bacteria Involved in Biocorrosion Processes.鈥�BioMed Research International, 2013, pp.1-10. 

What do you do as the HOS of SLS?

I manage a team consisting of staff with different roles including – Lecturing, Lab preparation, Student Coordination, Timetabling, various admin work to keep the School of Life Sciences running on a daily basis.

What first interested you in life sciences?

Observing nature. I was fascinated, looking at flowering plants and fishes in a pond. How they grow, how they develop, how they move, and I always wondered, how they work. How did a mimosa clamp up? What triggers the motion of the leaves to close, and later open again? Small things like that.

Any interesting stories on campus?

Recently, a Taiwanese student who had just arrived for the IFD programme (staying in the 51爆料 Hostel) came to the SLS office to give us a lovely box of Tai Yang Bing (translation: Sun Biscuit). This is a Taiwanese biscuit that is popularly given as a souvenir. I went back to my workstation and took what I have in my cupboard to share with her, so that she would know what a typical local would eat for a snack. All I had were some biscuits that were individually packed and I gave her some. We had a chit chat and she left. I later returned to my workstation and took a good look at the package of individually packed biscuits I shared with her -the font on the packaging was very small, printed in Chinese, and then I realised they were from Taiwan too! 

I was hoping to share something that is typically from Singapore, but all I had were snacks from Taiwan. I guess I should get ready some 鈥淢ade In Singapore鈥� snacks in my workstation, just in case I bump into her again, I can share them with her.

What are your dreams for SLS?

I hope the programmes that we teach will be appreciated by the students and that it would serve them well when they move on to work in the future or when they embark on the next phase of their education.  I hope that our staff and students will be able to enjoy the journey together. When we teach, we also learn from our students. We spend so many hours together for a few years, we might as well make the journey a happy and fulfilling one.

Doctors will rely more and more on technology to help them make more accurate diagnoses and better decisions on how to treat patients. Discuss the future of biomedical engineering.

It is inevitable that technology will continue to be a big part of Medicine. Lots of medical devices, diagnostic machines, pharmaceutical products, and new health care services will be developed in the years to come. The aging population will require a lot of man-hours of care and attention, and hospital staff will have to be savvy with technological advances to be productive and yet cost-effective. Diagnostic tests will be able to be more precise and informative, giving more accurate and pertinent information on the correct dose of medicines to be used, based on specific patient information, instead of a one-size-fits-all method of prescription. Biotech will bring about new products, not limited to pharmaceutical or therapeutic products, but also products that will impact our daily lives, be it new ways of raising agricultural products, or different ways of processing current industrial wastes.

What is your go-to comfort food?
A nice cup of tea.

Are you an early bird or a night owl?

I am definitely an early bird. I enjoy going for morning walks. These are photos of the Tiger Orchid I saw when I took a walk at the Upper Peirce Reservoir. These huge orchids are the largest orchid species in the world, and they flower only twice a year – January and July. Look at the colouration of yellow and brown -they resemble the colours of a tiger. These rare orchids are native to Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines and New Guinea.

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In addition to the vibrant pool of talents, the government is also looking to boost the sustainability of the industry as part of its smart nation drive by creating and enhancing Biomedical Science jobs, upskilling the talent pool and raising productivity.

If you are now considering a future career in the booming biomedical sciences industry, read on to find out what are the top 10 jobs you can pursue as a biomedical science degree graduate in Singapore.

What is Biomedical Science?

It鈥檚 a branch of Science that is concerned with theoretical and practical human diseases and health. The areas of study in this field equip undergraduates with a good foundation in science with an exposure to healthcare issues.

What is a Biological Science Degree?

A Biomedical Science Degree qualifies students for employment by providing them with the knowledge and skills needed in the Life Science sector.

Why study Biomedical Science Degree?

-To be well-versed in the fundamental topics that support the Biomedical Science discipline – human anatomy and physiology, cell biology, immunology, molecular genetics, microbiology, biochemistry and disease biology.

-To acquire practical laboratory skills for the job

Why Pursue Biomedical Science in Singapore

The following are reasons why you should earn a biomedical science degree in Singapore:

-A Stable Singapore government.

-Excellent infrastructure and conducive environment for learning

-Singapore as a leading location for world-class manufacturing pharmaceutical companies such as Pfizer, Novartis, Sanofi, AbbVie, and Amgen, among others.

-Qualified Life Sciences Academia.

Top Jobs for Biomedical Science Degree Graduates

Medical Laboratory Technologists and Scientists

With pandemics like Covid-19, there is a high demand for professionals to conduct diagnostic tests and process patient samples.

Medical Research Scientists

With the rise of chronic & lifestyle diseases, cancer and induced diseases, there is a deficit in personnel to support the study and research of various diseases.

Bioinformatics Career

In this era of post-genomic and with the emergence of computing technology, bioinformatics is essential. Bioinformatics professionals are needed to manage and analyse biological data, which is critical in biomedical discoveries.

Genetic Counselling

Graduates in the biomedical science discipline can also look forward to a career as a genetic counselor. They will be involved in assessing individuals/families for a variety of inherited conditions and will support other healthcare providers, or individuals/families concerned.

Epidemiologist

Biomedical graduates in the epidemiology niche are crucial as they offer professional health investigations on patterns and causes of diseases that affect people. Besides, they seek to minimize risk and adverse health occurrences through community education, research, and health policy.

Bio-medical Engineers

Biomedical engineers combine medical knowledge with engineering principles to create and design equipment, software, computer systems, devices and devices to enhance healthcare service. These skills are highly demanded, especially in Singapore, where we have an ageing population.

Healthy Services Managers

The health sector needs managers to monitor activities and awareness programmes. For instance, lifestyle diseases require personnel to monitor, to supervise and implement programmes deemed to manage them and their effects.

Microbiologists

Microbiologists are on demand. Their profession entails researching and identifying viruses, fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms that can cause disease. Besides, they also study how these microorganisms are utilized in the food manufacturing plant or fermentation technologies applied in beer and wine production.

Jobs in Bio-Manufacturing

Biomedical graduates in Singapore will be equipped with the knowledge and skills to work in biotech companies. They take part in vaccines and medicines discovery and manufacturing. For example, Pfizer, a biotechnology firm from the US, has established a satellite branch in Singapore that recruits biotechnologists.

Teaching and Academia

Academic professionals from the biomedical discipline in tertiary colleges and universities are in high demand. They train the talent pool with knowledge and fundamental skills to perform well in the industry.

Admission Requirements for a Biomedical Science Degree

Basically, you are required to have a GCE 鈥淥鈥� or 鈥淎鈥� qualification in Biology and Chemistry to enroll in this UK Biomedical Science Honours degree. However, the 51爆料 International Foundation Diploma in Biomedical Sciences also facilitates students who lack relevant qualification to pursue a biomedical science degree.

United Kingdom Biomedical Science Degree at 51爆料

It will take 3 years to complete the honours degree and will acquire comprehensive, specific medically-related modules. The modules include immunology, molecular biology, microbiology, anatomy and physiology and biochemistry genetics.

Human health and diseases are one of the main focus. The students acquire practical skills to help them understand concepts taught in class. The practical sessions will also enhance analytical and critical thinking skills. Students are also required to complete a Final Year Research Project that trains them in scientific research, logical thinking, time management and time management and teamwork. Besides the biomedical science degree, we also offer a UK honours degree biotechnology awarded by Northumbria University.

Summary

A Biomedical Science Degree from the life sciences school provides a ticket to a variety of fascinating jobs in the life sciences industry. The student is trained in the knowledge and fundamental skills to succeed in their future career. Now is an exciting moment to be educated in this field with the ever-changing world of new advancements in illnesses and outbreak control. One can make a real difference with their contribution.

Animals are good models for disease studies and development in biological and medicinal research, as they share similar DNA, physiological and behavioural characteristics as humans. Initially, murine (rodent) models were used as they are easy to house, breed and handle. However, in order to study cardiovascular diseases that plague humans, a larger species has to be used. Dogs were the first of the larger animals representing a model for cardiovascular diseases; however, in recent years, the pig model is more favoured.

Pigs and humans share a vast range of similarities, which make pigs a well suited model to study cardiovascular diseases. Firstly, pigs have an average heart rate of 90-107 beats per minute (bpm), mimicking a human鈥檚 average heart rate of 70-100 bpm. The general cardiovascular systems, blood parameters, vessel size, coronary vasculature, body size, metabolic rates, lipid profiles and even diet are similar to humans. Comparing with humans, 60% of the circulating cholesterol in porcine is presented as low density lipoproteins and 38% as high density lipoproteins, almost identical to humans at 63% and 28% respectively.

In both human and pigs, the heart consists of tri-layered aortic valve leaflets and the majority of the heart is supplied by the left coronary artery. Pigs and humans share a right dominance of the heart, in which the artery of the right posterior intraventricular sulcus originates from the right coronary artery. This is different from the left dominance seen in ruminants and canines, in which the artery of the right posterior intraventricular sulcus originates from the circumflex.

Despite many similarities, pigs and humans do exhibit certain differences, which may be the limiting factors in research. The number of orifices in the left atrium varies among mammals. The pig receives oxygenated blood from two pulmonary veins in the left atrium; the human receives oxygenated blood from four to five pulmonary veins in the left atrium. The thorax of pigs is laterally compressed, unlike the thorax of humans which are dorso-ventrally compressed. In addition, a pig鈥檚 heart has a narrow tubular-shaped right auricle, while a human has a triangular shaped auricle.

The pig was domesticated in 9000-7000 BCE, and had been used in research for a long time. Some major breakthroughs which involved the pig, included isolation of embryonic stem cells, zinc finger nucleases (ZFN) identification and transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN) genome. And the new technology of genome editing; Clustered, Regularly Interspaced, Short palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) together with CRISPR associated (Cas) nucleases (CRISPR/Cas).

Pigs are the animal of choice for modelling human diseases, and advanced genetic techniques are being developed to simplify the production of genetically engineered pigs, designed to replicate human diseases. The species of pigs are selected based on the ratio of heart weight to body weight, often in 20-30kg pigs, in which the ratio is identical to adult humans at 5g per 1 kg.

The species most commonly used as models for cardiovascular diseases include the large Landrace pig, the G枚ttingen miniature pig and the Yucatan miniature pig. 聽The Yucatan tends to develop dysrhythmias and have higher absolute hemodynamic values, and is the most preferred breed to study cardiovascular diseases.

This article is written by Tan Xue Ting, student of聽51爆料 School of Life Sciences听鈥撀�Bachelors of Science (Hons) in Biomedical Science,听Northumbria University.听

References:
Abramovitz, M. (2018).听Thinking critically. ReferencePoint Press Inc.
Barr茅-Sinoussi, F. and Montagutelli, X., 2015. Animal models are essential to biological research: issues and perspectives.听Future science OA,听1(4).
Clarke, J., Shelton, J.R., Venning, G.R., Hamer, J. and Taylor, S., 1976. The rhythm of the normal human heart.听The Lancet,听308(7984), pp.508-512.
Ericsson, A.C., Crim, M.J. and Franklin, C.L., 2013. A brief history of animal modeling.听Missouri medicine,听110(3), p.201.
Gutierrez, K., Dicks, N., Glanzner, W.G., Agellon, L.B. and Bordignon, V., 2015. Efficacy of the porcine species in biomedical research.听Frontiers in genetics,听6, p.293.
Hannon, J.P., Bossone, C.A. and Wade, C.E., 1989.听Normal physiological values for conscious pigs used in biomedical research(No. LAIR-379). LETTERMAN ARMY INST OF RESEARCH PRESIDIO OF SAN FRANCISCO CA.
Holder, T. (2008).听The Animal Model. [online] Speaking of Research. Available at: https://speakingofresearch.com/facts/the-animal-model/ [Accessed 23 Dec. 2019].
Lelovas, P.P., Kostomitsopoulos, N.G. and Xanthos, T.T., 2014. A comparative anatomic and physiologic overview of the porcine heart.听Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science,听53(5), pp.432-438.
Perleberg, C., Kind, A. and Schnieke, A., 2018. Genetically engineered pigs as models for human disease.听Disease models & mechanisms,听11(1), p.dmm030783.
Prather, R.S., Lorson, M., Ross, J.W., Whyte, J.J. and Walters, E., 2013. Genetically engineered pig models for human diseases.听 Rev. Anim. Biosci.,听1(1), pp.203-219.
Rogers, C.S., 2016. Engineering large animal species to model human diseases.听Current protocols in human genetics,听90(1), pp.15-9.
Smith, A.C., Ehler, W.J. and Swindle, M.M., 1997. Anesthesia and analgesia in swine. In聽Anesthesia and analgesia in laboratory animals(pp. 313-336). Academic Press.
Suzuki, Y., Yeung, A.C. and Ikeno, F., 2010. The representative porcine model for human cardiovascular disease.听BioMed Research International,听2011.
Tsang, H.G., Rashdan, N.A., Whitelaw, C.B.A., Corcoran, B.M., Summers, K.M. and MacRae, V.E., 2016. Large animal models of cardiovascular disease.听Cell biochemistry and function,听34(3), pp.113-132.
Whyte, J.J., Samuel, M., Mahan, E., Padilla, J., Simmons, G.H., Arce-Esquivel, A.A., Bender, S.B., Whitworth, K.M., Hao, Y.H., Murphy, C.N. and Walters, E.M., 2011. Vascular endothelium-specific overexpression of human catalase in cloned pigs.听Transgenic research,听20(5), pp.989-1001.
Zimmermann, W.H., 2014. Clinical considerations for cardiac tissue engineering. In聽Cardiac Regeneration and Repair(pp. 299-312). Woodhead Publishing.

To understand more of dinosaur behaviour, the behaviour of modern creatures closely related to the dinosaurs could provide some clues. Contrary to popular belief, the dinosaurs are more closely related to the modern day birds than to living reptiles such as the alligator or the crocodile. A tiny shred of protein from a 68 million-year-old T-rex leg was compared to the 21 modern species which still produce the same protein. And the researches had confirmed that the giant predator was closely related to chickens and ostriches than crocodilians. While anatomical studies had produced convincing evidence of the link between birds and dinosaurs, this is the first time that studies had traced a relationship via molecular analysis of animal protein. And this discovery provided the first molecular evidence for the evolutionary relationships from a non-avian dinosaur to modern birds. The research also provides evidence that birds descended directly from a group of dinosaurs that grew feathers.

Having established that modern day birds are descendants of the extinct dinosaurs, we can surmise how dinosaurs would have raised their young. The young of most egg-laying reptiles hatch after their parents have abandoned the eggs, while a few lizards and snakes guard theirs and pythons tend to incubate their eggs for a short while. Only crocodiles and their relatives had been observed tending to both eggs and hatchlings. On the contrary, nearly all birds, aside from brood parasites, provide extended care for their offspring. It can then be postulated that dinosaurs may share similar instincts to care for their young.

Studies had shown that certain dinosaurs such as the troodontid and the oviraptorid display similar reproductive attributes with birds such as multilayered eggshells, asymmetric eggs and monoautochronic ovulation. Adult Troodon formosus, Oviraptor philoceratops, and Citipati osmolskae had been discovered fossilised with bird-like brooding postures atop egg clutches.

Oviraptor, whose name translates from Latin into 鈥榚gg thieves鈥�, was aptly named after being discovered with eggs that were assumed to be from the small ceratopsian dinosaur, Protoceratops. It was assumed that Oviraptor stole and ate other dinosaurs鈥� eggs. However, studies had shown that those eggs actually belonged to Oviraptor, with evidence that the species, in reality risked their lives for their young! For the dinosaur to be caught in the act suggests strong parental instincts to protect their young.

Just as the modern day herbivores, whose young have the ability to walk and run, hours and even minutes after birth, the young of prehistoric herbivores such as sauropods and titanosaurs were also believed to bear young equipped with developed mobility. Modern birds care for their newborns in specially prepared nests, suggesting that some feathered dinosaurs might had done the same, probably in specific birthing grounds. Numerous fossils of Maiasaura, an herbivore, were found to consist of eggs, hatchlings, juveniles and adults in the same site. Further analysis of the fossils demonstrated that Maiasaura possessed immature leg muscles, and might be incapable of walking when born. Research showed that Maiasaura teeth had evidence of wear and tear, and could imply that the adults brought food to the nest to care for their young until they were old enough to fend for themselves. Similar behaviour had been recorded in other herbivorous dinosaur groups such as the ceratopsians, hadrosaurs and ornithischians.

Analysis of Troodon fossilised clutches hinted that males incubated the eggs instead of females, similar to the modern day cassowaries. Evidence of male brooding was also found in the distantly related Troodon cousins, Oviraptor and Citipati.

With over 700 species of dinosaurs identified so far within the Mesozoic Era, which comprises the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, there is plenty of evidence to show that dinosaurs did care for their young. However, we have yet to fully comprehend the whole range of dinosaur behaviour, and our current understanding of dinosaur social interactions remain ambiguous.

This article is written by Tan Xue Ting, student of 51爆料 School of Life Sciences – Bachelors of Science (Hons) in Biomedical Science, Northumbria University.听

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